Chapter 4: Adaptation and mitigation options

This chapter begins by saying that there are many adaptation options available which may be effective, but at the moment not enough is being done. It points out that a societies capacity to adapt is dynamic and depends on a number of factors including: natural and man-made capital, social networks and entitlements, human capital and institutions, governance, national income, health and technology.

The report goes on to say that there is 'substantial economic potential' for mitigating GHGs which may limit projected increases or reduce them to below current levels and that a variety of technologies and policies are needed to achieve this. It is mentioned that a reduction of 6GtCO2 eq/yr is possible in 2030 with no extra cost.

Page 15 includes a table of sectoral adaptation strategies, policies and constraints/opportunities. In the water sector, adaptation options include harvesting rainwater, conservation, water re-use, desalination, and irrigation efficiency. The implementation of these would require national water policies and integrated water resources management. The key constraints are financial, human resources and physical barriers. Opportunities exist for synergies with other sectors and integrated water resource management.

In terms of the agriculture sector, adaptation options include adjustment of planting dates and crop varieties; crop relocation; improved land management, e.g. erosion control and soil protection through tree planting. The implementation of these would require RD&D policies; institutional reform; land reform; training; capacity building; crop insurance; financial incentives. Key constraints include technology and finance; access to new crop varieties; markets. Opportunities include longer growing season in higher latitudes; revenues from new products.

The adaptation options available to the transportation sector include realignment and relocation of routes affected by climate change for example in coastal areas or areas of permafrost.

The energy sector requires the biggest overhaul. Adaptation options include strengthening overhead transmission and distribution infrastructure; underground cabling; energy efficiency; use of renewable sources; reduce dependency on single sources of energy. The following are needed in order to implement these adaptations: national energy policies, regulations, and fiscal and financial incentives to encourage use of alternative sources; incorporating climate change in design standards. Constraints include access to viable alternatives; financial and technological barriers; acceptance of new technologies. The opportunities include the stimulation of new technologies with the resulting economic boost; use of local resources.

Bringing global GHG emissions back to 2005 level by 2030 would require substantial shifts in investment patterns in energy, but would only cost about 5% extra. Investments in the usually energy plants (oil, coal, gas) now, would have long term impacts on GHG emissions due to the long life time of energy plants.

The report mentions two approaches to estimating mitigation potential. These are 'bottom up studies' which begin assessing from the sectoral perspective, and 'top down studies' which take a macro-economic position. Both approaches produce similar potential mitigation numbers.

Basically a wide variety of options are available to governments to create incentives to mitigate emissions. A price on carbon would be the first step, though fossil fuel exporting countries would likely suffer from this. International cooperation is an essential part of mitigation. The UNFCCC has been successful in setting up the Kyoto Protocol and creating an international market for carbon trading. These initiatives may lead the way for future policies to reduce emissions. Climate change policies support sustainable development and therefore should be integrated into national development programs.